The CCG Privacy High Court Tracker is a resource consisting of decisions on the constitutional right to privacy passed by all High Courts in India. The Privacy High Court Tracker captures cases post the pronouncement of the Justice (Retd.) K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (Puttaswamy) judgment. In Puttaswamy, the Supreme Court of India reaffirmed the existence of the right to privacy in India’s Constitution as a fundamental right.
The Privacy High Court Tracker is a tool to enable lawyers, judges, policymakers, legislators, civil society organisations, academic and policy researchers and other relevant stakeholders, to engage with, understand and analyse the evolving privacy law and jurisprudence across India. The cases deal with the following aspects of privacy (1) autonomy, (2) bodily integrity, (3) data protection, (4) dignity, (5) informational privacy, (6) phone tapping, (7) press freedom, (8) right to know and access information, and (9) surveillance, search and seizure.
The tracker currently only consists of cases reported on Manupatra, and those reported upto 15 December 2023 (CCG will continue to update the tracker periodically). Only final judgements are included in the tracker, and not interim orders of the High Courts.
Show methodologyInformational Privacy, Right to Know and Access Information || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 01.06.2020
Citation - MANU/TN/3387/2020
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed.
Legal Provisions - S. 8(1)(j) of the Right to Information Act, 2005. Sections 158(6), 160, 169 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 read with Rule 1 of Order XVI of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908
View Case
"The right of access to the CCTNS portal has been thoughtfully restricted only to stakeholders (which undoubtedly includes the insurer) on payment of prescribed fee, and it cannot be carped that there is no provision for other intermeddlers, who are in no way connected with it, for using that facility, as it is likely to otherwise cause invasion of the privacy of the victims and the vehicle owners by misuse of their personal information."
Read moreSpecial enactments may restrict access to certain information under the Right to Information Act, 2005 to protect the right to privacy of certain individuals.
Read moreSearch and Seizure, Surveillance, Phone Tapping || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 23.11.2020
Citation - MANU/TN/6319/2020
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed.
Legal Provisions - S. 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1985
View Case
"The Hon'ble Supreme Court of India held that telephonic tapping cannot happen unless specific criteria as mentioned in Section 5 (2) of Indian Telegraph Act are satisfied along with the criteria laid down in the case. The circumstances in which such permission can be granted is when there is a specific public emergency and the same related to some matter relating to sovereignty and the integrity of India; the security of the states; friendly relationship with foreign states; public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of an offence. These steps laid down have been reaffirmed by the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in the case of K.S. Puttuswamy (Retd) and another Vs. Union of India and others reported in.The first respondent passed the orders for detection, prevention, investigation and prosecution of corrupt activities of the petitioners herein in accordance with the provision under Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885. Therefore, this Court finds no violation of Section 5(2) of the Telegraph Act and also it would not amount to violation of the right to privacy"
Read morePhone tapping orders meant for detection, prevention, investigation and prosecution of criminal/corrupt activities do not amount to a violation of the right to privacy, if conducted within legal parameters.
Read moreAutonomy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision date - 07.06.2021
Case citation - MANU/TN/3963/2021
Case type - Civil Misc. Writ Petition
Case status - Dismissed
Legal provisions - Article 14, 15 and 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950.
View Case
"Sexual autonomy is an essential aspect of the right of privacy which is another right recognised and protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. LGBTQIA+ persons, like cis persons, are entitled to their privacy and have a right to lead a dignified existence, which includes their choice of sexual orientation, gender identity, gender presentation, gender expression and choice of partner thereof. This right and the manner of its exercise are constitutionally protected under Article 21 of the Constitution." ""The 'grounds' enumerated in Article 15 of the Constitution are not water-tight compartments to be viewed divorced from discrimination which is the sheet anchor of the provision. The grounds are merely instruments to find and eliminate discrimination and are, therefore, a means to an end. Discrimination is not a self-referencing concept. A meaningful attempt to identify and eliminate discrimination must necessarily involve the identification and protection of the constitutional values of personal autonomy, dignity, liberty and privacy.""
Read moreDignity || Madras High Court
1 Judge
"Decision date - 13.08.2021
Citation - MANU/TN/5584/2021
Case type - Civil Writ Appeal
Case status - Dismissed
Legal provisions - Article 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950; Sections 9-A and 33 of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947."
View Case
"In the judgment of the Hon'ble Apex Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (supra), Hon'ble Justice Sanjay Kishan Kaul (in his separate opinion) recognizing the breach of privacy committed by private individuals/private entities/non- State actors, called upon the legislature to legislate on this issue and ensure privacy of individuals against other citizens as well."
Read moreInstallation of CCTV cameras in the changing area and the restroom would amount to a breach of privacy
Read moreAutonomy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Date of decision - 20.12.2021
Case Citation - (2022)1MLJ466
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provision - Article 14, 15 of the Constitution of India, 1950.
S. 3 of the The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016
View Case
"In the present case, if the respondents would have given effect to the principle of reasonable accommodation as mandated by the legislature, the reason cited forby not permitting the petitioner herein to travel along with her male counterparts, once again the government and the respondents have discriminated against her on the ground that she is a woman and that she also suffers the further cumulative and intersectional disadvantage of being disabled, and that on account of these factors, the justification seems to be that she is at the risk of being assaulted or unsafe, sexually or otherwise. In effect, this rationale is, what has been referred to in the above decisions as perpetuating the dangerous myth that women are seductive sexual objects. Analysing the said factors, it has been categorically held that it is the duty of the State to provide and ensure safety for women in a way so as to inspire confidence to discharge their duty freely in any profession of their choice. The same well applies to the case at hand."
Read moreWomen athletes with disabilities should be treated with the same respect and dignity as male athletes with disabilities. Consequently, such discrimination would perpetuate inequality and violate their right to personal liberty and autonomy. The State should take necessary steps in the field of sports to ensure the same.
Read moreSurveillance, search and seizure || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Date of decision - 20.12.2021
Case Citation - MANU/TN/9939/2021
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provision - No legal provisions referenced
View Case
"As far as the Chennai city is concerned, the Chennai Corporation has already issued a notification declaring the Spa and Massage centres as the public places and issued directives to install CCTV cameras in all such public places in order to ensure safety and security as well as to prevent any illegal activities. Similar declarations are to be made by the Corporations and Municipalities across the State of Tamil Nadu."
Read moreSpas and Massage centres are public spaces and installing CCTV cameras in such places is important to ensure security and prevent illegal activties.
Read moreSurveillance, search and seizure || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision - 04.01.2022
Citation - 20221WritLR120
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provisions - Article 19, 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950
View Case
"Suspicion that immoral activities are taking place in massage centres cannot be reason enough to intrude into an individual's right to relax for it intrinsically is part and parcel of his fundamental right to privacy. Morality cannot be invoked as a mere incantation to justify such curtailment. This was also the essence of the landmark ""Section 377"" verdict of the Hon'ble Supreme Court in which it was held that in matters of one's private affairs, constitutional morality shall trump public morality."
Read moreCCTV cameras cannot be installed inside spas on the mere suspicion of illegal and immoral activity.
Read moreSurveillance, search and seizure || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 04.02.2022
Citation - MANU/TN/0689/2022
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provisions - Article 19 and 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950.
S. 5 of The Public Gambling Act, 1867
View Case
"Ours is a democratic society and every citizen and association of citizens has right of privacy. If that privacy is getting invaded indiscriminately, then there would be an end for all the democratic way of life and the rule of the law. However, under the guise of privacy, no citizen or association of persons can indulge in illegal or unlawful activities. At the same time, under the guise of suspicion, no police officer straightway walk into the place, make a raid and search without reason to believe that such place is used as gaming-house. For instance, gaming which includes wagering or betting to the extent it is defined in the Act, is forbidden by it. Simply, because a police officer thinks that some gaming is going on in a place, he cannot make a search of it. When a person's private life or his privacy is sought to be interfered with, it should be done with a sense of responsibility. That is why the search which is permitted under Section 5 is circumscribed by very many limitations and precautions, which are clearly intended to safeguard the interests of the citizen."
Read moreInstalling CCTV cameras in all areas of the club except for the washrooms on the suspicion of gambling would be a violation of the right to privacy of the members. Further, the police should not attempt to access the footages other than those required.
Read moreInformational Privacy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 21.04.2022
Citation - MANU/TN/3065/2022
Case Type - Criminal Original Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provisions - S. 2(n), 28, 29, 33, 33(1) of the Aadhaar (targeted Delivery Of Financial And Other Subsidies, Benefits And Services) Act, 2016
View Case
"Furnishing of these details are not been prohibited by the Judgment of Hon'ble Supreme Court rendered in Justice K.S.Puttaswamy and Another -vs- Union of India (UOI) and Others cited supra. It does not amount to disclosure of the privacy details of any individuals but to probe whether there is any such individualat all.."
Read moreFurnishing of Aadhaar card details by the UIDAI to the Criminal Investigation Department for an investigation into its genuineness would not violate the right to privacy of Aadhaar holders.
Read moreSurveillance || Madras High Court
2 Judge
Decision Date - 30.06.2022
Citation- MANU/TN/5086/2022
Case Type - Civil Misc. Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal provisions - Article 19, 21 of the Constitution Of India, 1950. S. 2(5) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019. S. 19, 21, 31, 32 of the Maintenance And Welfare Of Parents And Senior Citizens Act, 2007
View Case
"In Paragraph II (8) of the G.O., it requires that “cameras should be installed in all rooms in the homes”. This is a clear invasion of privacy. CCTVs can be installed in corridors but not in rooms."
Read moreInstallation of CCTV cameras in all the rooms of an old age home to monitor its functioning is a violation of the right to privacy of the residents.
Read moreInformational Privacy, Right to Know or Access Information || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date- 18.07.2022
Citation - MANU/TN/5409/2022
Case Type - Civil Misc. Writ Petition
Case Status - Dismissed
Legal provisions - Article 21 of the Constitution Of India, 1950. S. 11, 8(1). of the Right To Information Act, 2005
View Case
"If the copy of the certificates are given by the Public Information Officer, it will tantamount to providing third party information to the petitioner. In view of the sensitiveness of the details that will get into the hands of the petitioner, such information should not be provided without putting those candidates on notice. A candidate would not want the entire world to know the caste or community to which he belongs since, even today, there is a social taboo on the basis of caste and community. Providing the details of the spouse of the candidate is certainly a private information and a candidate may not be willing to provide this information. Under such circumstances, Section 11 of the Act, will certainly come into play. The concerned candidates are not parties to the proceedings and the information touching upon the right of privacy cannot be given to the petitioner without putting them on notice."
Read moreInter-caste marriage certificates submitted by individuals to a public authority for public employment benefits would be protected under the right to privacy and cannot be furnished to third parties through an RTI request without notice.
Read moreInformational Privacy, Right to Know or Access Information || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 19.07.2022
Citation - MANU/TN/6258/2022
Case Type - Civil Misc. Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal provisions - S. 11, 2, 3, 8 of the Right To Information Act, 2005
View Case
"Hence, if an information is relating to a third party (not being an information supplied by the said third party) even then notice is mandatory under Section 11(1) of the Act. The main reason for such a mandatory notice under Section 11(1) of the RTI Act is that, once the information seeker receives the information from the information provider relating to a third party, it no longer remains in the private domain and the received information can then be disclosed by the information seeker to the whole world."
Read moreThe Central/State Public Information Officer cannot disclose information considered confidential by a third party without their consent.
Read moreRight to Know and Access Information || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 15.09.2022
Citation - W.P.No.23988 of 2022
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed
Legal provisions - Article 226 of The Constitution of India
View Case
"Since the scam value is very high and cheated depositors are enormous, in order to maintain transparency with regard to arrest and seizure, whenever any arrest, search or seizure is made, press note with regard to progress is given to print and electronic media to build confidence among the people and cheated depositors. It is also a process of creating awareness to the public from being cheated by such type of accused with false promise of enormous returns. Therefore, the press note is given in good faith only to create awareness and to receive all the complaints from the depositors and to enlighten the public about the complicity of the accused. It would not amount to violation of privacy under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. However, unnecessary publicity is given through print or electronic media about the details of the investigation, which ultimately affects the administration of justice. The investigation is secret affair and at times such secrecy alone leads to success in the investigation. Hence, the respondents are directed not to disclose any information received while interrogation from the accused persons and from their confession statements."
Read morePolice may provide case details during an investigation in good faith, without violating an individual's right to privacy. However, information obtained through interrogation and confession statements should remain confidential, as its public disclosure could potentially interfere with the administration of justice.
Read moreBodily Integrity || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 02.02.2023
Citation - MANU/TN/0496/2023
Case Type - Civil Revision Petition
Case Status - Petition Allowed
Legal Provisions - S. 75 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872; S 294(b), 324, 341, 506(ii) of the Indian Penal Code, 1860
View Case
"Thus it is clear that it has to be examined the proportionality of the legitimate aims being pursued, whether the same are not arbitrary or discriminatory, whether they may have an adverse impact on the person and that they justify the encroachment upon the privacy and personal autonomy of the person, being subjected to the DNA Test. In the case on hand, the first respondent can very well prove her case by material and oral evidence in the manner known to law i.e. the first respondent is the plaintiff and she has to prove the case in the manner known to law. Therefore, the petitioner cannot be compelled to give sample of blood for analysis which is against his will. Further, the court shall not subject the person for DNA test as a matter of course or in a routine manner."
Read moreThe right to privacy of an individual is violated if the court or any other authority orders for a DNA test without the individual's consent. A court must first consider whether any material or oral evidence can be provided to support a claim of a relationship before examining if the case meets the proportionality requirements to subject an individual to a DNA test.
Read moreSurveillance, Search and Seizure || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 18.05.2023
Citation - 2023 SCC OnLine Mad 3277
Case Type - Criminal Appeal
Case Status - Disposed
Legal Provision - Article 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950; S. 8(c), 29, 28, 22, 20 and 42 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985
View Case
"Even if statute confers such power upon an authority to make search and seizure of a person at all hours at all places, the same may be held to be ultra vires unless the restrictions imposed are reasonable ones. What would be reasonable restrictions would depend upon the nature of the statute and the extent of the right sort to be protected sought to be protected. [...] Although a statutory power to make a search and seizure by itself may not offend the right of privacy, but in the case of this nature, atleast the Court can do it to see that such a right is not a necessarily infringed. Right to privacy deals with persons and not places."
Read moreThe NDPS Act gives considerable power to conduct search and seizures at odd hours. These powers should be balanced with the appropriate reasonable restrictions to protect the right to privacy under Article 21 of the Constitution.
Read moreAutonomy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 23.06.2023
Citation - WP(MD) No. 10747 of 2023 and WMP(MD) Nos. 9459 and 9460 of 2023, 2023 SCC OnLine Mad 4135
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Disposed.
Legal Provisions - Section 277, 328 of the Indian Penal Code. Sections 3(1)(b), 3(1)(x), 3(2)(va) of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Section 5 of the Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022. Article 226 of the Constitution of India
View Case
"Even though, section '5' [Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022] gives complete power to the Magistrate that power must be exercised in a judicial manner. There must be subjective satisfaction expressed by the Magistrate in the judicial Order. The above said subjective satisfaction of the Magistrate must also be subject to the test, that has been laid down by the Hon'ble Supreme Supreme in the famous case K.S.Puttaswamy. All these things must be taken care by the Hon'ble Special Court." "Without going into the merits of the matter and other things, whether this will amount to self incrimination and the petitioner can be compelled to undergo DNA test are all the matters to be taken into account, as provided under section 5 of the Special Act at the time of hearing by the Special Court."
Read moreWhen the right of an individual is involved, such as for the conduct of a DNA test, the Magistrate should ensure that the proper procedure is followed before making an order for conduct of such test. Any irregularity in following the procedure can lead to violation of the consent of the individual. In making such an order, the Magistrate should exercise discretion in terms of the test of proportionality laid down in the KS Puttaswamy case.
Read moreDignity || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 21.08.2023
Citation - W.P(MD)No.9068 of 2015
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Petition Allowed
Legal Provisions - Article 21, 226 of the Constitution of India
View Case
"The core issue is whether a refugee like the petitioner has any fundamental right... They have the right to Live so long as they are here with human dignity. The State is under an obligation to protect the lives of both citizens and non-citizens" "A refugee has to be housed in reasonably decent accommodation. The basic infrastructural facilities must be available. He or she must also have access to the fundamental amenities such as sanitation, health care, clean drinking water etc., When the right to shelter and housing has been recognised internationally as a human right, it cannot be denied to the refugees living in a camp. A camp houses a few hundred families. There are women and young girls. Their privacy has to be ensured. Otherwise, there is no meaning in declaring privacy as a fundamental right."
Read moreAll persons, whether citizens or non-citizens have right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution and the State is under an obligation to protect lives of both citizens and non-citizens. The State is liable for the loss of life of a refugee caused by being caught under the debris of a collapsed wall of the refugee camp during a downpour.
Read moreInformational Privacy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 08.08.2023
Citation - 2023 SCC OnLine Mad 5314
Case Type - Writ Petition
Case Status - Petition Allowed.
Legal Provisions - Article 19 of the Constitution of India
View Case
"Not only individuals but even groups have privacy rights. Time has come to recognize the concept of ""group privacy"". So long as the activities of a group do not fall foul of law, their privacy must be respected... As already held, the petitioner is very much possessed of the right to vent. The opinion was not expressed publicly. It was shared among the members of a private WhatsApp group... In these circumstances, the act committed by the petitioner cannot amount to misconduct."
Read moreViews expressed privately on a virtual platform, even if on a WhatsApp group, criticising the management cannot be proceeded against on grounds of misconduct.
Read morePress Freedom || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 16.06.2023
Citation - O.A.No.509 of 2022 & A.No.3494 of 2022 in C.S.No.172 of 2022
Case Type - Original Application
Case Status - Application Denied
Legal Provisions - Article 19(1) of the Constitution of India
View Case
"It is true that the right to freedom of speech as enshrined in Article 19(1)(a) cannot be usurped to damage the reputation of an individual. Reputation of an individual had been traced to Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The Hon'ble Apex Court in the judgment reported in 2016 (17) SCC 221 had dealt with balancing of the rights available under Article 19(1)(a) and Article 21. But, however, considering the fact that the applicant herein admittedly is a public person. The Youtube videos & tweets tabulated supra only make various allegations as against the applicant in performance of his official duties."
Read moreComments made against the conduct of a person in carrying out their official duties cannot be said to violate the right to privacy of the person.
Read morePress Freedom, Informational Privacy || Madras High Court
1 Judge
Decision Date - 26.06.2023
Citation - A. No. 1009 of 2023 in C.S. No. 189 of 2022
Case Type - Application
Case Status - Disposed of
Legal Provisions - Article 21 of the Constitution of India
View Case
"It is pertinent to consider the order of this Court made in O.A.No.871 of 2014 and A.No.6297 of 2015 in C.S.No.705 of 2014 dated 16.05.2018 wherein, a learned Judge of this Court after analyzing the judgments of the Hon'ble Apex Court particularly in the case of Justice K.S.Puttuswamy's (Retd.) reported in (2017) 10 SCC 1, R.Rajagopal's case reported in 1994 (6) SCC 632 and Division Bench judgment of this Court reported in (2006) 2 LW 377 had come to the following conclusion- "40.The theory that there cannot be a prior restraint or a gag order upon the Press or Media stands diluted, after the judgment of the Hon'ble Supreme Court in Justice K.S.Puttaswamy's case. The observations of Hon'ble Mr. Justice Sanjay Kishan Kaul, extracted earlier would show that the Media cannot in the guise of public interest publish anything and everything, which may be interesting." "
Read moreThe right to privacy and the right to freedom of speech should be balanced against the test of public interest. With respect to a person in the public sphere, a publisher cannot publish everything in the guise of public interest. The Court directed that any publication of statements on public platforms regarding the activities of the respondent (a public figure) should be done only after notifying the respondent regarding the same and incorporating the response in the publication if the response is received within 72 hours.
Read moreAutonomy and Bodily Integrity || Madras High Court
2 Judge
Decision Date - 21.11.2023
Citation - R.T. No.2 of 2022 and Crl.A. Nos.427 and 392 of 2023
Case Type - Regular Trial and Criminal Appeal
Case Status - Appeals disposed.
Legal Provisions - Sec. 6 r/w 17, 21 of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012. Sec. 75 of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015
View Case
"10. In the Medico-Legal Examination Report [Ex.P7] issued by PW5- the doctor, as stated earlier, has said that there is evidence of penetrative sexual intercourse. However, we notice regrettably that two finger test had been conducted in the instant case, though the Hon'ble Supreme Court and this Court in several cases have repeatedly held that such a test is neither acceptable nor desirable to ascertain whether the victim was subjected to sexual intercourse. We take this opportunity to remind the Doctors that if they conduct any test in contravention of the directions of the Hon'ble Supreme Court in the State of Jharkhand Vs. Shailender Kumar @ Pandav Rai, reported in (2022) 14 SCC 289, they shall be guilty of misconduct as held by the Hon'ble Supreme Court. However, in the instant case, we are of the considered opinion that PW2's evidence is cogent and convincing and can be the sole basis to determine the guilt or otherwise of the accused and the absence of any corroboration would hardly make any difference. Therefore, even if the expert opinion of the Doctor is ignored, there is nothing to doubt PW2's version."
Read moreThe High Court reiterated the illegality of the 'two-finger test' in sexual assault cases, and that Doctors conducting the 'two-finger test' on sexual assault victims will be held guilty of misconduct.
Read moreMethodology
The Privacy High Court Tracker has been developed using judgements pulled from the Manupatra case law database. Through its search function, CCG identified cases that relied upon the Puttaswamy judgment and were pertaining to the right to privacy, and filtered them by each of the 25 High Courts in India. These were then further examined to identify those cases whose decisions concerned a core aspect of privacy. CCG identified the following aspects of privacy (1) autonomy, (2) bodily integrity, (3) data protection, (4) dignity, (5) informational privacy, (6) phone tapping, (7) press freedom, (8) right to know and access information, and (9) surveillance, search and seizure. Cases where only incidental or passing observations or references were made to Puttaswamy and the right to privacy were not included in the tracker. The selected cases were then compiled into the database per High Court, with several details highlighted for ease of reference. These details consist of case name, decision date, case citation and number, case status, legal provisions involved, and bench strength. The tracker also includes select quotes concerning the right to privacy from each case, to assist users to more easily and quickly grasp the crux of the case.
For ease of access to the text of the judgments, each case on our tracker is linked to the Indian Kanoon version of the judgment (wherever available) or an alternative open-access version of the judgment text.
We welcome your feedback. In addition, you may write to us at - ccg@nludelhi.ac.in with the details of any privacy case we may not have included from any High Court in India.
